Topic 4: Rome: the Republic
Overview and Reading Assignment
United the Greek poleis accomplished great feats, but they never learned to extend their ideas of citizenship beyond individual polis borders. The Romans far surpassed their neighbors to the east in this regard. Eventually, Roman citizenship was granted to citizens of far-flung provinces. The Romans admired much about the Greeks. Educated Romans read Greek literature and philosophy. They agreed with the Hellenes that men were fundamentally rational and that rational truths existed and could be discovered and known to all. The Romans, however, were more practical than the contemplative Greeks; they displayed a real genius for law, domestic and international. But such accolades do not tell the whole story. We are about to enter a saga of conquest and imperialism. I picture the Roman conquest like the work of an efficient machine, or better, like the organization and tenacity of a colony of ants. Roman leaders learned before the end of the third century B.C. that conquest and extending the boundaries of Rome's empire brought in huge amounts of tribute and slaves. Moreover, the patriarchs and ambitious sons of the great families, ruthlessly competed for glory and fame, neglected infrastructure problems, and never learned how to incorporate equitably conquered peoples.
In conjunction with Topic 4, one should read in the textbook, Hunt, et al., The Making of the West, Vol. I: To 1740, 2nd ed., pp. 163-69, 172-84, 188-91, 193-200.
IV. Rome: the Republic
A. From Monarchy to Republic. Civilization appeared late in Italy; no one tribe dominated the whole peninsula. The people who built the city Rome arrived on the Italian peninsula ca. 1400-1000 B.C. They were tough, warlike, mountain peoples who gradually took up farming. About 625 B.C. these Latin-speaking people drained marshes at the base of seven hills, where the Tiber River emptied into the Mediterranean. They built a central meeting place, the Forum; the settlement was called Rome. Despite its humble beginnings, Rome was strategically located on the peninsula with a protected harbor and surrounded by defensible hills.
Older scholarship posited that the Romans were much influenced by the Etruscans. About 800 B.C. the Etruscans controlled the central portion of northern Italy (modern Tuscany), and they may have ruled over the Romans. It appears that so much which was thought to have been assimilated from the Etruscans—military weaponry and tactics, e.g., the hoplite infantryman, an alphabet, and other features of early urban civilizations—the Romans acquired through contact with Greek colonies to the south, or they developed on their own.
In its early history, Rome was ruled by a monarchy. A king was chosen for life and his election approved by the Senate, an assembly of elders. The Senators, about three hundred in number, were the richest, most powerful men of Rome. They and their families constituted the patrician class, similar to the aristocrats in Greek society. Patricians alone could sit in the Senate, hold public office and conduct public religious ceremonies. Senate rule was patrician rule, which was rule by an oligarchy. Until 445 B.C., patricians forbade marriage outside their ranks to the rest of Roman society, that is, the plebeians (commoners).
The social elites among the Romans transformed government from a monarchy to a republic ca. 509 B.C. The word ‘republic,’ res publica, the “public business,” reflects the sense of shared government rather than one-man rule. There was no written constitution as yet, but some division of government. The imperium (authority) of kingship was transferred to two patricians, called consuls. These officials led armies and served as judges and high priests at religious festivals; their term of office was one year. In Rome the city, the praetor ruled in the absence of the consuls. His most important responsibility was to act as judge. As Rome expanded and established provinces, retired consuls and praetors served as governors and top administrators.
The Senate wielded control over finances, foreign policy, and they advised consuls and city magistrates. In the early Republic, the Centuriate Assembly (Comitia Centuriata), basically the officer corps of the Roman army, was important for it elected chief office holders and voted on decisions of war or peace, as well as other legislation. To a great extent the Centuriate Assembly was manipulated by the Senate. The Assembly of Tribes represented a broader spectrum of all citizens arranged into thirty-five voting units.
B. Struggle of the Orders (494-287 B.C.). Eventually the plebeians contested the exclusive rights claimed by the patricians. In consideration of their military service, they wanted more political representation and access to power. Patricians constituted only 5 to 7 % of the population, yet they alone held political offices. Over the course of about two centuries, laws were passed which resolved the plebeian demands.
In 494 B.C., the office of the tribune was established. Tribunes were advocates for the commoners. Plebeians chose two tribunes, later the number was increased to ten. It was deemed a religious crime to harm a tribune. From this came their power of veto, that is, to stop passage of acts in the Senate. As with consuls, tribunes held office for one year.
In 451-450, the Roman law was codified, known as The Twelve Tables. The law had been the secret preserve of the patricians. In 445, plebeians were permitted to marry patricians, thus opening doors of political advancement for wealthy plebeians. In 366, it was decreed that a plebeian could be elected consul. In 342, it was permitted that both consuls may be plebeian; one must be plebeian.
In 287, it was declared that laws passed by the Assembly of Tribes were binding on all Romans. While these laws granted more political representation to plebeians, nonetheless, politics were dominated by a few. From 233-133, twenty-six families provided 80 % of the consuls; a mere ten families furnished almost 50 %.
C. The Roman Family. All members of a Roman family were subject to the father, the paterfamilias. Fathers held imperium over family members, equivalent to the power of consul on the battlefield, which technically meant they held the power of life and death over their children. Romans, like the Greeks, practiced infanticide/abandonment.
Upper-class Romans spent a considerable amount of time and energy choosing appropriate mates. Dowries and inheritances were the two main ways to transfer property. Advice was sought from political allies and family friends; still, the bride's father gave final consent. The only person not consulted was the future bride. Roman girls were betrothed at an early age, legally as young as twelve, more likely at age fourteen. In the Republic, most marriages were cum manu, that is, legal authority over the wife was passed from the father to the husband. In the late Republic and Empire, more marriages were arranged sine manu. According to that arrangement, legal authority was retained by the father, which actually gave the wife more authority over her dowry and other property, especially if her father died. In the third century B.C., divorce was possible, and towards the end of the Republic it became common.
Upper-class Roman wives enjoyed considerably more customary rights and freedoms than their Athenian counterparts. They attended social activities with their husbands. They ate meals with their husbands at home and entertained guests together. Roman men seemed to have valued their wives on a personal level more than Athenian men. It was important to Roman historians and myth-makers to include stories about virtuous matrons. A few Roman women worked as teachers, artists, and physicians. However, Roman men availed themselves of prostitutes, and slave women were completely at the mercy of their owners. Those who could afford to pay a wet nurse, generally did so, although prejudices gave rise to the notion that milk from inferior women would lead to inferior children. Thus, Cato the Elder, a famous Roman senator, saw to it that his own wife nursed slave children in order to ensure their loyalty to him.
Legally, Roman women were statutory minors, always under the control of a male—father, husband, or guardian. In reality, some managed great estates on their own, worked as professionals, and some mothers were responsible for the education and early career preparation of notable sons. But women were never allowed to vote or participate in politics publicly, except in a few public displays.
D. Conquest of Italy (ca. 493-264 B. C.). After expelling the Etruscans, the Romans formed the Latin League with close neighbors (ca. 493), extending their power over the immediate area. As Rome gained more territory on the peninsula, its leaders generally treated defeated peoples tactfully. Three levels of alliances were established with neighbors: 1) a few were granted full citizenship rights; 2) others given municipal status—right to make legal contracts and marry Romans; and 3) those referred to as allies were granted limited rights, required to pay tribute temporarily and provide soldiers. Even allies retained self-government and could become Roman citizens, if they moved to Rome. Eventually, Rome granted citizenship to all qualified people on the peninsula without moving to Rome itself (88 B.C.). Defeated peninsular peoples were not required to pay taxes to Rome. Rome settled army veterans in subjugated territories, built excellent roads to facilitate communication and to transport troops in case of trouble. The roads and communication network effectively mobilized the entire military manpower of Italy at Rome's disposal. The alliances and system of international law devised by Romans superseded the Greek polis mentality.
After 300, Rome extended its domain south. This expansion led to conflict with Greek colonies in Magna Graecia, “Great Greece,” the Roman name from which we take our designation, ‘Greeks.’ The Greek colonies gave command to a general Pyrrhus. In 280, Pyrrhus twice defeated the Romans, but his own losses were severe (hence the expression, "a Pyrrhic victory"). Pyrrhus left the peninsula, but returned in 267. This time he was soundly defeated by the Romans. By 264 Rome controlled the entire Italian peninsula south and north to the Po River valley.
E. Involvement in International Affairs, 264-133 B.C. This era in the history of the Republic could with equal justification be called the "Age of Imperialism." Rome greatly expanded its dominion over the Mediterranean, and its motivations are variously interpreted by historians. It began with a series of colossal wars against the Phoenician colony of Carthage, founded ca. 700 B.C. Carthage grew to be an immense Mediterranean power with a first-rate navy. Its empire eventually extended over parts of Spain, Corsica, and Sardinia. Rome fought three wars against Carthage, known as the Punic Wars. The first was fought from 264-241 B.C., the second 218-202, and the third 149-146. The first war was waged over control of Sicily. Rome finally won in 241. Rome seized Sardinia and Corsica in 238 and demanded more war indemnity from Carthage.
Questions arise as to why Rome engaged Carthage. Rome to that time was a land-based power, while Carthage's strength lay in its navy and overseas empire. The simplest answer is that Roman senators opted for war because they felt duty-bound to protect a client-power in Sicily which requested that Rome intervene. Once involved, Roman tenacity forced them to fight to a successful conclusion. The Senate treated the peoples of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica differently than the defeated peoples on the Italian peninsula. Inhabitants of the former became neither citizens or allies; they were treated as subjects from whom Rome demanded taxes.
The second Punic War, 218-202 B.C., was fought over control of Spain. The Carthagians commissioned a determined opponent of Rome since his youth, Hannibal, to defeat their adversary. Hannibal crossed the impassable Alps with elephants. He defeated every Roman army sent against him in Europe. As he ravaged the Italian countryside, he hoped to entice Rome's allies to revolt; the majority never did. Unable to defeat Hannibal in the field, Rome launched a counter-offensive in Spain, and then in 204 B.C., Publius Cornelius Scipio landed in Africa. The threat to Carthage forced Hannibal to return. In 202, Scipio's army defeated Hannibal’s.
The third Punic War, 149-146 B.C., was an atrocious affair engineered by the senator, Marcus Cato. In reality, Carthage was no longer a threat, but vengeful senators ordered it destroyed.
Rome’s attention was drawn to the east and Greece. In a series of wars, known as the Macedonian Wars, Rome fought with rulers of Macedonia and Hellenistic monarchs over control of Greek city-states. By 168 B.C. Rome had defeated these powers and formed a protectorate over Greece. Rome gained control of most of Spain by 134 B.C. [see textbook map].
The reasons for Rome’s expansion are open to various interpretations. Were they simply protecting clients as the Senators claimed? Did the Romans think of themselves as Mediterranean police, who must settle disputes with force? Were the wars fought only to maintain Roman security, or did the Romans seize upon the profitability of imperialism very early in their expansion? After 167 B.C. there was no longer any need to collect property taxes in Rome because of the surplus money from tribute.
It is arguable that before the Macedonian wars, the Romans were protecting and securing projected borders, trade routes, and food sources. Once they turned east to Greece and beyond, it is not clear that national interests were at stake. The powers competing for control of the Aegean were not formidable threats to Rome. Plus, the question remains as to why Rome annexed these areas, instead of leaving after subduing the offending powers.
Roman leaders' motives may be debated, but their techniques were cruel beyond doubt. In subjugating one Spanish tribe in 133 B.C., a Roman general reduced the tribe to cannibalism. A neighboring town that considered sending aide to their fellow Spaniards had the hands of 400 of their young men chopped off.
F. Reform and Revolution, the Gracchi Brothers. By 133 B.C. Rome ruled a vast empire. Imports, especially needed grain, were brought in, but most important—tribute and slaves. The massive amounts of tribute did not have a positive effect on Roman society. The profits were not shared equitably. War profiteers grew exceedingly wealthy, while the status of the average farmer declined, which adversely affected not only the farmers themselves, but the Roman army as well. Their problems also had a portentous effect on Roman politics.
The early Roman armies were composed of farmers with enough money to outfit themselves and join the military. By the mid-second century B.C., Roman farmers\soldiers faced three grave difficulties, one might call them serious 'squeezes.' 1) The length of military service became increasingly longer, particularly if one had to serve in Spain. 2) Much of the Italian farmland, from which farmers were absent for longer periods of time, had been ravaged by Hannibal's troops. Farmers with small plots of land were hard pressed to farm their lands profitably. Nor could they join the army for a career since they were too impoverished to enlist. 3) Wages were depressed due to the increased number of slaves, the prisoners of war. Somewhat similar to the plight of American farmers, big corporations, in this case, senators and other wealthy individuals, acquired large tracts of land. More and more huge estates, latifundiae (plantations), appeared on Roman territory, worked by slaves, not by Italian farmers. On top of these problems, the Roman army was seriously depleted. Owing to the second Punic War alone, Roman military manpower was reduced by 50,000 men (285,000 in 218 to 235,000 in 203).
Two brothers, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, dedicated their political careers to solving these dire problems. Tiberius and Gaius came from a distinguished plebeian family. Tiberius was elected tribune in 133 B.C. He proposed a bill to divide public lands among poor families [see SWT readings]. Much public land had been appropriated illegally by rich landowners. His bill aroused bitter opposition and was vetoed in the Assembly of Tribes by another tribune. Tiberius, violating customary law, had that tribune removed from office. He introduced an even more radical land reform bill. In order to see it implemented, he ran for the tribune office a second successive term, also a breach of law. At the elections a riot erupted, and Tiberius with three hundred of his followers were killed by a mob of senators and their clients. The violence marked the first major internal bloodletting in Roman political history.
Elected tribune in 123, brother Gaius took up the cause of reform. To strengthen his position, Gaius courted the interests of equestrians. The equestrians represented a kind of middle class, much closer to the patricians than the plebeians. Equestrians made their mark on society as wealthy businessmen. Some were tax collectors, while others formed corporations that built roads and aqueducts and managed other businesses. Equestrians could be wealthier than senators, and they resented the restrictions placed on them.
Gaius was reelected in 122, but defeated in 121. The Senate, incensed over Gaius's attempted reforms, gave the consuls the power of martial law. Gaius and his followers were condemned. Gaius committed suicide at the hand of his servant, while three thousand of his followers were murdered.
The political strategies of the Gracchus brothers marked important innovations in Roman politics. They attempted to bring the equestrians as well as other less powerful people into Roman politics. Moreover, they greatly increased the activity of the Assembly of Tribes. On the less democratic side, Tiberius and Gaius violated the constitution by running for office in successive years. The real losers were the intractable senators. By resorting to 'lynch law,' the senators exposed the bankruptcy of their political skills and their inability, or worse, refusal to address the problems facing the Republic.
G. The Rise of Military Dictators. The Gracchi brothers had not been able to achieve lasting political success because they could not protect themselves from the power (violence) of the Senate. Marius, Sulla, Pompey, and Julius Caesar among others represent the final trend in late Republican politics. Beginning with Marius, these Roman politicians were rich and powerful enough to command personal, professional armies. Commissioned by the Senate as proconsuls (highest ranking official beneath consuls), they won military victories in the field, securing wealth and prestige for themselves and the spoils of war for their officers and soldiers.
Marius (157-86 B.C.) was the first Roman general to play this dangerous game of power politics. He recruited men too poor to qualify in previous years for the army. These men then looked to Marius, not to Rome, for their welfare and advancement.
Pompey was another of these ambitious military stars. In 77 B.C., he first gained recognition for suppressing a revolt in Spain. Upon his return to Rome, he joined forces with another enterprising Roman general/politician, Crassus. Together they defeated a huge slave revolt led by a Thracian slave trained as a gladiator, Spartacus. Having vanquished Spartacus, both generals then marched to Rome and demanded the consulship for each of them. Pompey, age thirty-six, was legally unqualified. Nonetheless, both were elected consuls (70 B.C.). Pompey’s victories continued to mount: in 67, he cleared the Mediterranean of pirates; in 66 he defeated Mithridates in Asia Minor and in 63 annexed Syria. Several influential senators, suspicious of Crassus and Pompey, tried to block their political objectives. Pompey enlisted the support of another up-and-coming politician, Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.), a member of a prestigious patrician family. Caesar, too, had been snubbed by the Senate. Moreover, Caesar was heavily in debt to Crassus. The three men, Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, formed an alliance designated by historians as the First Triumvirate. Their mission was to accomplish their personal goals by mutually supporting one another as they circumvented opposition in the Senate.
Caesar obtained a governorship of territory north of the Italian Alps (Po valley), and on the strength of this command, he led a campaign into modern day France, Belgium and England. He was victorious wherever he marched during the course of the Gallic War (58-50 B.C.); his troops killed possibly two million Gauls. Meanwhile, Crassus and Pompey had also received commands, but in 53, Crassus was killed on the Syrian frontier. The stage was set for a collision between Caesar, Pompey and the Senate.
Certain senators, fearing the talents and power of Caesar more than Pompey, assailed Caesar by stripping him of all his commands. Furthermore, the Senate let it be known that any tribune who opposed its policies would be executed. Thus, they gave Caesar a perfect propaganda weapon: he must march on Rome to defend justice and liberate the oppressed.
On 11 January 49 Caesar and his army invaded Rome’s boundaries. Pompey and his officers fled to Greece. Caesar pursued and defeated them in 48 (at Pharsalus, in Thessaly). Pompey escaped only to be killed on the shore of Egypt by order of pharaoh's advisors. Caesar followed Pompey to Egypt. There he met Cleopatra and was seduced to support her campaign to oust her co-pharaoh. She then became sole queen of Egypt. After more victories in Africa and Spain, Caesar returned to Rome in 46, triumphant and eager to revamp the Roman republic.
Julius first declared himself dictator for one year; in 44, he declared himself dictator for life. He raised the number of senators to nine hundred and permitted non-Romans and Gauls to take seats in Senate. He enlarged its representation but weakened its political power as he filled it with his supporters. He instituted major public works; the masses probably loved him. Caesar's intentions are disputed. Was he motivated strictly by self-interest, or was he convinced that the Senate and Assemblies were outdated and unable to handle the problems of the empire, and thus dictatorial leadership was necessary? Merciless to Gauls and Germans, Caesar showed remarkable clemency to his own countrymen. Captured Roman officers who opposed him were simply relieved of command. Julius rose to the summit of Roman politics, but this accomplishment ultimately led to his downfall and that of the Republic.
A faction of sixty senators formed against Caesar. Some of them were probably convinced that Caesar would install a monarchy over Rome; others were rankled that he stood in the way of their own ambitions. The conspirators were led by Senators Cassius and Brutus. As a group they assassinated Caesar on 15 March 44 B.C., outside a large theater built by Pompey. Civil war erupted as the senatorial conspirators clashed with Caesar's allies, Mark Antony and Caesar's grandnephew, Octavian, his adopted son and heir to his fortune. Two years later, Marc Antony and Octavian defeated the army of the senatorial conspirators.
H. Demise of the Republic. The victors divided the Roman empire into zones of rule. Marc Antony took over the rich eastern zone, while Octavian took charge of Rome and the West, beset by a multitude of problems. Antony, like Caesar before him, succumbed to the charms of the Hellenist ruler of Egypt, Queen Cleopatra. She had a child from Julius Caesar and was claiming he should inherit his father's position.
Octavian settled problems in West. Through propaganda he appeared as the champion of Italy, while Antony's reputation declined. After 36 B.C. the alliance dissolved. In 31, Octavian's forces defeated Cleopatra and Antony. Antony took his own life. Cleopatra was left alone to confront Octavian. His intentions were made clear: to take her as a captive to Rome to be displayed in his triumphal procession. She rejected this humiliation and took her own life as well. The last Hellenist ruler was dead, and Egypt was in Roman hands. Octavian confiscated the riches of Egypt. He returned to Rome in 29 B.C.; all his rivals were vanquished.
Topic 5: Rome: The Empire
Overview and Reading Assignment
For several decades Roman politics had been filled with intrigue, bribes, riots, daggers, and swords. Romans were eager for an end to civil strife and return to stability; thus, they accepted Octavian's rule. He acted as if the republic still existed; in fact, it did not. Power was concentrated in the hands of the Princeps, "first among equals," Octavian’s preferred title. The strength of the Princeps' accomplishments can be seen in the trouble-free succession of authority upon his death. His successors soon dropped all pretenses that they ruled a republic and assumed the title imperator—emperor. Octavian's rule ushered in the era of the Roman empire, an entity that existed before as a territorial organization, and henceforth as a political organization with its supreme authority vested in one man.
In conjunction with Topic 5, one should read in Hunt, et al., The Making of the West, Vol. I: To 1740, pp. 203-10, 218, 225-28, 234-39, 245-57, 263-68.
V. Rome: The Empire
A. The Principate of Augustus. In 27 B.C., the Senate bestowed on Octavian the title Augustus, "the revered one." His real power was held under his other titles: consul (31) and proconsul over Spain, Gaul, Syria where twenty of twenty-six legions were stationed. In 23, he acquired tribune powers, even though he was a patrician, which gave him the power of veto and the right to conduct business in the Senate and the Assembly of Tribes.
Augustus believed, as did Julius Caesar before him, that Rome needed swift and decisive action to maintain its empire. The Senate moved too slowly; plus it was hampered by unscrupulous men, vying for more power and wealth. It seemed that only a strong-willed individual with dictatorial powers could keep the system working. Augustus placed talented, loyal men in the Senate and as provincial governors. Increasingly, the Senate served as a rubber stamp for imperial policies and soon an expanded imperial household, functioning as the imperial bureaucracy, governed Rome and the provinces. The Senate and assemblies continued to meet, but Augustus had the final say.
In order to enhance the imperial dignity, Augustine proclaimed himself pontifex maximus ("highest priest") in 12 B.C. over the state cult. He formed the concept of the divine-ruler cult. He assigned Julius Caesar a place among the Roman gods and built a temple to the deified Julius. Augustus began calling himself "Divi Filius," the "son of the Divine One." He built temples dedicated to "Rome and Augustus", a further suggestion that the Princeps should be adored. Indeed, Augustus was deified upon his death in A.D. 14.
He established the first public fire department and police force. Besides the numerous temples built, Rome in general, was renovated, although the vast majority of people still lived in insulae—five-to six-story crowded, wooden apartments with running water on only the first floor, fire traps really. The poor in Rome, about 250,000, were receiving free grain.
Augustus and his council were also concerned about the decline in morality and in the birth rate. He enacted laws to curb adultery and to promote procreation by suppressing women's rights: freeborn women with less than three children could appear in court only with a guardian.
Augustus's immediate successors were not especially noteworthy except for their insanity and maliciousness. Nero was the worst of all (ruled A.D. 54-68; henceforth all dates refer to the period A.D. unless otherwise noted). He was just sixteen when he came to throne. His immorality and cruelty are infamous. For example, he had his mother executed; it appears that she had seduced him earlier. He fancied himself Rome's greatest athlete and artist. He competed in the Olympic Games and always won first place. Nero's reign caused a rebellion in Gaul that spread to Rome. He lost support of the Praetorian guard, the personal bodyguard for the emperor, and the army legions. Before an assassin could murder him, Nero took his own life. Rome was once again thrown into deadly confusion. Four different emperors occupied the office until Vespasian (ruled 69-79) emerged the victor. Vespasian was the first emperor not from old Roman nobility. He was a soldier from the Italian middle class, an equestrian.
The process of centralization under Augustus's successors continued. The right to elect magistrates for the provinces was stripped from the Assemblies, given to the Senate, and eventually, this right was acquired by the emperors. More powers were taken from the Senate and handled by the emperor's household administration. All major offices were eventually appointed by the emperor. The Senate was further weakened by the interference of the Praetorian Guard.
B. Five "Good" Emperors (96-180 AD). Before the emperor Nerva was selected in 96, several previous emperors had been assassinated. Such violence and confusion was caused by a major constitutional flaw: there was no constitutional apparatus to hand over imperial authority in an orderly fashion upon the death of an emperor. Having disposed of the Emperor Domitian, the Senate chose an older, quiet member, Nerva, to be the next emperor. Nerva had the good sense and foresight to select a successor and adopt that person as his heir as well. Nerva adopted Trajan, who succeeded him. This practice in which an emperor selected a qualified successor and adopted him as an heir settled the succession issue peacefully for the next century. From 96-180, the Roman empire was ruled by a series of emperors, beginning with Nerva, known as the five "good" emperors.
Trajan's successor was Hadrian (117-38). Hadrian continued the trend of imperial autocracy. The Roman assemblies no longer met to pass laws; Hadrian simply issued laws in his own name with or without approval from the Senate. He was advised by an informal council, the "friends of the emperor." This committee had several experts in Roman law. Hadrian's laws, although issued without the Senate’s approval, were generally fair and humane. Freeborn women were granted the same rights as men in the courts. Upper-class women could own, inherit, and dispose of property.
C. Roman Economy and Provincial Administration to 200 AD. The first two centuries of the empire were marked by general prosperity, but underneath were developments which would later have ominous consequences. On the Italian peninsula, latifundiae continued to spread at the expense of small farms. Many of these plantations were switching to cash crops—wine, olive oil or cattle. Plantations in lean years hardly provided enough food for those who worked on the land. By the end of the first century, almost one-third of Rome's inhabitants were on public welfare. Rome could not feed itself from the produce of the peninsula. Its inhabitants depended on imported wheat, primarily from Egypt. Manufacturing and trade on the peninsula fell behind that of the provinces. Spain and Gaul had better natural resources and cheaper labor forces.
The population of Rome was ca. 1 million+. Elsewhere Alexandria maintained a population of ca. 500,000, Epheseus, in Asia Minor, supported 200,000, and Antioch ca. 150,000. There were so many more cities in the East. The western economy was not as diversified as the East. Administration in the provinces was based in the cities. The typical Roman policy was to send top administrators, either directly from an emperor or from the Senate, who were assisted by local, upper-class magistrates. These were unpaid positions. The provincial administration under Augustus ran smoothly. Political stability encouraged commerce and industry. Local governments were permitted to rule themselves if no problems arose. As long as upper classes participated, the policy worked well enough.
The imperial bureaucracy in Rome grew in numbers, but not in wisdom. It began to interfere in provincial affairs with negative results. The tax base dwindled, and local administrators were forced to pay from their private treasuries any shortfalls in taxes; so they began to withdraw from government. The result was a loss of economic initiative. In 212, Rome tried to counter this movement and attitude by extending citizenship to almost anyone who qualified in the provinces.
D. Roman Religion. The Romans adopted a number of Hellenistic religions/philosophies. For an understanding of Stoicism read the extracts from Marcus Aurelius [SWT Readings], plus information from the textbook. Another major Hellenistic philosophy which upper-class Romans eventually accepted was founded by Epicurus (341-270 B.C.). Epicureanism embraced the atomistic theory of Democritus. He theorized that all creation was composed of atoms. Upon death, human atoms are redistributed into the universe, and there is nothing left that suffers or desires an after-life. Consequently, Epicurus taught that people ought to free themselves from all guilt trips, for the gods will not punish humans after death. One ought to live according to sober principles of moderation; avoid excessive pain or pleasure. The wise man, Epicurus taught, withdraws from the world because it holds no attractions for him. At first the Roman oligarchy did not take well to Epicureanism. In 173 B.C., two Epicurean philosophers were exiled from Rome.
Another Hellenistic philosophy was espoused by the Cynics. Long-haired, bare-footed, and unkept, the Cynics denounced society and protested by shocking and offending their contemporaries. Cynics relieved themselves in public, insulted passer- byers, then begged food from them.
These philosophies may have met the needs of the educated elite, but the poorer people turned to other religions. Most of these are designated mystery cults. These cults came primarily from the East. They had several common characteristics: 1) a savior/god granted forgiveness of sins through his death and resurrection; 2) rituals were elaborate, emotional, even ecstatic; 3) entrance into these religions was secretive; and 4) they offered the hope of an after-life. Among the better known cults was the Cult of Mithras which was very popular in the Roman Army. Converts were baptized with ox blood. The mystery religion that gained the largest following and that has had the most impact and influence on the West is Christianity.
E. Jesus of Nazareth and Early Christianity. Christianity came from Palestine, a much troubled area. Palestine fell to the Babylonians and then to the Persians. The Jews in Palestine gained some independence (rebuilt temple ca. 515 B.C.), but not much later they were subjugated by Alexander’s forces (332 B.C.). They regained some independence during the Maccabean revolt, 168-165 B.C., but once again the area was occupied by foreign troops after Pompey’s successful campaign in 63 B.C. The presence of Roman troops quelled any disturbances, but the fervor of Jewish nationalism could not be cooled, fueled as it was by expectations of a Messiah, "the anointed one," chosen by God to restore the Davidic kingdom on earth.
Out of this turmoil, exacerbated by political and religious tensions, emerged the charismatic figure, Jesus of Nazareth. To those who accepted his message this Jesus was the 'Christ,' the Greek word for the Hebrew 'Messiah.' He taught that the Hebrew God had created the world and all its people. Human beings, both Jews and non-Jews, Gentiles, had forsaken God and lived their lives without acknowledging the lordship of the creator. God, being merciful, had extended restoration to fallen man through his son, whom Jesus of Nazareth claimed to be.
The Jewish religious leaders denounced Jesus. He embarrassed them. His speech, full of parables and hyperbole, was maddening. He spoke blasphemies, and he seemed to be subverting the written law, the commandments. Jesus insisted that mere observance of the law did not satisfy God's requirements of holiness. He was condemned according to Jewish law and executed according to Roman law, which meant he was crucified. His followers looked upon his death as the ultimate sacrifice of himself for corrupt, sinful humanity.
Many Jews accepted the message of Jesus, particularly the poor and Hellenistic Jews. The latter created the office of deacon, ca. 36. The sect was persecuted by Jerusalem's leaders. Most Jewish Christians fled Jerusalem and were dispersed in the Middle East and Asia Minor. A sizeable contingency moved to Antioch, a major city to the north in Asia Minor which became a center of early Christianity. From there missionaries were sent to many parts of the Roman empire. The most noted and influential of these missionaries was Saul of Tarsus, later known as Paul.
Paul received an excellent education. He was a Roman citizen, had a thorough knowledge of Hebrew religion but he was also familiar with Hellenistic thought. He had been among the prosecutors of Christians. He was converted to Christianity ca. 36-37. From that date, he worked unceasingly to spread the Christian message to Hellenistic Jews outside Jerusalem and to Gentiles in Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome. His ministry forced the issue of Jewish law and custom versus the revolutionary message he attributed to Jesus, i.e., that the grace of God superseded the law of the Old Testament. This struggle of law versus grace, in other words, whether Gentiles and Jews were still bound to follow Hebrew custom and law, contributed to the irreparable split between the new sect of Christians and Jews remaining loyal to their traditional religion.
At first Roman leaders hardly noticed the Christians. The Romans considered Christians to be a Jewish sect. They thought only women, the poor and slaves were converting. Christians made the difference clear, for they would not even pray for the safety of the emperor which the Jews did. For Christians, there was zero tolerance for the state cult.
Rumors and accusations spread about the early Christian communities. Early Christian worship centered on two observances: baptism, i.e., immersion in water, symbolizing the washing away of sins and the Lord's Supper, or Eucharist (eucharistia—giving thanks), the commemoration of Christ's last meal with his disciples, before his death and resurrection. Upper-class Romans were deeply suspicious of people meeting secretly. They feared their slaves and the poor were worshiping foreign gods and conspiring against their masters. Romans speculated that Christians were indulging in orgies during their "love feasts"—Lord's Supper; they also condemned them of cannibalism, as they misunderstood the rites of the Eucharist. Moreover, Christians were branded atheists because they denied the existence of all other gods besides their own. Prosecution, however, was only sporadic in the first and second centuries.
F. Period of Crises: The Empire in the Third Century. Through the course of the third century, the empire suffered terribly from: 1) 'succession by assassination'; 2) economic woes; 3) social inequities; and 4) demographic disruption.
1. Assassinations, Invasions, and Ruthless Generals. Although the Roman administration in the provinces was holding up, Rome was severely tested owing to the constant, bloody struggle among military commanders and emperors. From 235-84, twenty-two emperors ruled of which only two did not meet violent deaths. More of these rulers died at the hands of fellow Roman officers, often the Praetorian Guard, than by foreign swords.
Society was swallowed up in militarism. Unless one was an officer in the military, one could hardly expect an auspicious career. Soldiers were loyal to emperors, or to their commanding officers, not to Rome. Emperors and generals fought amongst themselves, vying for control of provinces and Rome. It was 'succession by assassination.'
The frontier was under increasing strain. In the East, an old foe revived in the Persian Empire. In 260, a Roman emperor was captured while on campaign against this enemy. His captors paraded him through the thoroughfare of their capital before executing him. No doubt, the German and Persian powers were formidable adversaries; nonetheless, it appears Rome suffered more from internal dissension than from external aggression.
Standing between Rome and the invaders was the Roman army, but it was not what it used to be. By A.D. 100, only one soldier in five was Italian. Army leaders drafted slaves and gladiators and eventually peasant recruits from remote provinces. The result was that more Germans and other foreigners filled the ranks. These recruits had never seen Rome; they held no sense of allegiance towards the capital or the imperial system.
2. Economic Problems. For a number of reasons the economy was "overheating." A shortage of silver caused emperors to debase the coinage; they issued copper coins thinly coated with silver which led to serious inflation. Emperors resorted to forced loans and compelled provincial upper-classes to perform services and pay taxes.
There were excessive budget costs. Army pay was doubled to keep up with inflation which raised the budget twenty-five percent. And public welfare was maintained for Rome's poor.
3. Social Crises: Slavery and Demographic Disruption. The Romans were dependent on slave labor. An owner of a large estate owned 4,116. Julius Caesar reported that he once sold 53,000 Gauls into slavery in one day. In Augustus’s reign, there were some seven and a half million inhabitants in Italy of which three million were slaves. Most slaves were not valued; in legal terminology, slaves were designated the "talking stock" as compared to the "dumb stock," the farm animals.
The extensive and intensive use of slaves eventually crippled Rome. Other than a few water mills, the ancient world was poor in machines that could multiply the labor of one worker; to increase production one needed more human machines. After Augustus, the tempo of conquests slowed considerably and so did the acquisition of slaves. The slave system provided no incentives for most slaves; the prospect of freedom was limited to a few. Slaves worked because if they did not they were beaten. Slaves did not procreate well. Most slaves came from conquest and purchase, not from slave breeding. In the long run, slavery was inefficient. Slavery also affected attitudes of the free born. Manual labor was considered fit only for slaves. The low prestige accorded labor stifled interest in technological innovation.
Demographic woes negatively impacted the empire. It is estimated that in North Africa one-third of the land cultivated during Augustus's reign had been abandoned two centuries later. In the west, the countryside and towns were ravaged by the spread of diseases. Between 165-180, a small pox epidemic wreaked havoc.
G. Attempts to Revive the Empire. Towards the end of the third century, first Diocletian (284-305) and then his successor, Constantine (312-37), initiated sweeping reforms to revive the empire. Realizing that Rome often had to fight a two-, if not three-front war, Diocletian decided to divide the empire in half. He would rule the eastern half (capital Nicomedia in Asia Minor). The western half was ruled by General Maximian who was raised to the imperial rank. Maximian ruled from Milan, Italy; emperors no longer ruled from Rome. Furthermore, Diocletian fixed wages and prices to ensure that the army acquired the least expensive supplies. Constantine enforced the same legislation. Administrators were ordered to perform jobs; they could not retire. Sons were forced to assume the very job held by their fathers. This legislated caste system stifled initiative even more since one had very little chance if at all of improving one's lot.
After gaining control first over the western half of the empire (312), Constantine took charge of the eastern half as well (324). He thus reunited the empire, but not long after his death (337), it was again split. Unintentionally Constantine further weakened the western half of the empire when he moved his capital from Rome to the city previously called Byzantium (330) and renamed it Constantinople (1937 renamed Istanbul). The shift in capital sites had portentous long term consequences. It drew more attention to the eastern empire which was so much more populated, more cities and trade. By 476 there were no more Roman emperors. Not until 1453 was the Roman Empire in the East, known as the Byzantine empire, overthrown.
H. The Growth of Christianity. The worse pogrom against Christians was carried out in the last two years of Diocletian's reign from 303-5 and continued in the East until 311. Diocletian feared that Christians were subverting the army and angering the Roman gods. Churches and Christian writings were destroyed, while clergy were apprehended and forced to offer sacrifices to the emperor and Rome. Many clergy were imprisoned and tortured, some slain; lower-class Christians were enslaved. Constantine stopped the persecution in the west. He credited his victory over his imperial rival to Christ, and in 313 he and the eastern emperor made Christianity one of the official state religions (Edict of Milan). Christians were no longer imperially persecuted. In Rome, Constantine granted tax cuts to the clergy and gave one of the imperial residences to the Roman clergy. He raised the clergy to a level on par with the Senatorial aristocracy. He aided Christians as well by ordering the construction of several churches.
Under Constantine churches more than recovered and mainline Christianity, which henceforth is designated Catholic, meaning universal, would in less than seventy years, be decreed the only legal religion of the empire. In this period most of the administrative hierarchy of the Christian church had been established. By ca. 400, Catholic Christianity was organized in a hierarchy of: 1) Patriarchs or archbishops over archdioceses); 2) bishops over dioceses; 3) assisted by priests.
Establishment of the Papacy. The church organization in Rome was without equal in the west. After 300 when the emperors no longer lived in Rome, the bishop of Rome represented the most organized administrative leader. Assisted by a large and sophisticated ecclesiastical bureaucracy, the Roman church could boast of such leaders as the apostle Peter, one of Jesus's disciples, said to be the first bishop of Rome. In the fourth century, the bishop of Rome, Damasus, formulated a most important doctrine known as Petrine Succession. Damasus I (366-84) claimed that Jesus had singled out Peter to receive the 'keys' to the kingdom of heaven (Matt. 16: 18-19). Peter, according to Damasus, was the rock upon which Christ would build his Church. Damasus claimed bishops of Rome were the successors of Peter. He insisted that the bishop of Rome held the authority to pass final determination on all doctrinal issues and to confirm all appointments of bishops. By this time, bishops were not just spiritual leaders, but powerful civic officials; thus, the office of bishop was highly sought in many contested elections.
Bishop Leo I (440-61) further strengthened the claims of the Roman bishop by taking the title, pontifex maximus "highest priest." Borrowing from Roman law the idea that an heir inherited all the rights and obligations from the testator, in other words, the heir in a legal sense became the testator, Leo argued that he was 'Peter.' At least by the tenure of Leo I, one may refer to the Roman bishop as the pope over western Catholic Christianity. His leadership was not recognized by the patriarch of Constantinople.
I. The Germans: Allies and Assailants. While Christianity increased, the parameters of the Roman imperial administration in the West decreased. The empire diminished as German tribes encroached its borders. Since the late third century bands of Germans had been in contact with Roman provinces. In some areas, German men supported their families as mercenaries for Romans. In the fourth century, the imperial administration was so impoverished that whole Germanic armies were deputized by emperors. These German allies, referred to as foederati, were enlisted to fight opposing German troops. After having defeated the intruders, the commissioned German chief was left to govern the disputed province. Roman emperors fully expected to re-establish imperial rule in the besieged territories. Further emergencies prevented them from regaining control.
The Germanic nations might have been assimilated into the empire, but the invasions and attacks in the fifth century on Rome itself and the onslaught of the Huns from the east collapsed rather than expanded the imperial administration. In 410, the "eternal city," "the mistress of the world," Rome, was sacked by a band of Visigoths led by their chief, Alaric. The plight of the Visigoths exposed the fallacy of lasting cooperation between co-emperors and German allies. The Visigoths had previously been employed in the imperial forces south of the Danube river. In 376, the co-emperor, Valens, granted the request of the Visigoths to settle within the boundaries of the Empire if they would do so peaceably as allies. When the emperor violated the treaty with the Visigoths, they revolted and killed Emperor Valens in battle (378). Alaric, soon to be the leader of the Visigoths, did not obtain all his demands from the next emperor; therefore, in a desperate effort to feed his people, he attacked and sacked Rome.
Meanwhile, the Huns pushed other Germans against Roman boundaries. The Huns had migrated from the Russian steppes and moved into the Danubian plains by ca. 375. A ‘domino effect’ was produced; the invading Huns forced German tribes into western Roman frontiers. The Huns were a fierce people, even by German standards. Superior horsemen, sources emphasize their muscularity and ferocity. Their arms were marked with tattoos, while they purposely scarred their cheeks. In some instances, Huns were enlisted in imperial armies. Sometime ca. 430 they became organized. The general, Attila, gained control over the nation in 444\45 and in the early 450s, the Huns were prepared to attack Rome. Probably due to an epidemic among his troops, Attila was unable to besiege Rome. He died soon afterwards.
Traditionally, 476 is given as the date for the fall of the Roman Empire. In that year, a German chieftain, not a Roman or Italian, Odoacer, served as commander of the imperial army. He deposed Emperor Romulus Augustulus and took the title "King of the Romans." He informed the eastern emperor, Zeno, of his actions. Zeno temporarily acknowledged Odoacer's claim, while Odoacer recognized Zeno as the sole emperor over the east and west.
J. The 'Fall' of Rome? The reasons why Roman empire collapsed in the west may be answered without delving into the broader issue of the decline of Rome. The shortest answer to the question as to why Rome no longer ruled in the west is that the imperial government gave up its authority over western provinces. Emperors relinquished control, temporarily in their minds, to German allies. In other cases, imperial armies were despatched to more serious problem areas. In 407 imperial troops were pulled out of Britain never to return; the remnants were expelled by 409. These troops were transported by Constantine III in his successful bid to become emperor. In 411, an imperial army was withdrawn from Spain and sent to Africa. They were ordered to leave Africa in 432 by the general Boniface and shipped to Italy in order to support his campaign to become emperor. The imperial administration strove to maintain control solely over Gaul and Italy.
Looking beyond the immediate problems of the imperial government, reasons for Rome's chronic decline are not hard to find. Roman emperors had exterminated political rivals and forced the rest into resignation. The upper-class, therefore, did not provide leadership, talent, and ambition to join the emperors against the barbarians. The militarization of society further undermined the participation of civilians. Especially hated were Roman tax collectors. Imagine that to thousands living on the Italian peninsula and in the European provinces, rule by barbarian Germans appeared less harsh than rule under the Roman imperial system.
Secondly, when Constantine moved his capital to Constantinople, Rome's political authority in the west was severely compromised. Compounding the strain, the west covered a much larger area of land, a much longer frontier to defend and administrate; yet, the west had a serious manpower shortage.
Debilitating economic and social factors have already been discussed. The western half of the Roman empire was depopulated and political authority decentralized. Consequently, society contracted to basically two classes—landowners (nobility) and laborers, either peasants (tenant farmers with some kind of contractual agreement with landlords) or serfs with hardly any rights. The gap between the classes widened; in between these groups, the numbers of merchants, tradespeople, and civil bureaucrats, dwindled to almost none in the west.
As the central government in the west weakened, the owners of the large estates, the villas, assumed more authority over the serfs and peasants. The villas became independent political units to which the serfs were bound. These villas were the precursors of the medieval manors. As central political authority declined, local forces were no match for German invaders; besides, if left alone, the landowners seemed content to watch German chiefs assume territorial control.